Earthquakes are caused by vibrations which occur when tectonic plates move against one another. The Richter Scale is used to measure the energy of an earthquake.
Volcanoes often form along oceanic ridges. The nature of a volcanic eruption depends on factors such as the composition and temperature of the lava within the earth.
In civil engineering, mining and earthworks projects success depends on vigilant and continuous onsite engineering inspection and testing to confirm that the materials and workmanship are in accordance with the relevant codes and guidelines, design specifications and construction drawings.
Mining and agriculture rank together as the primary or basic industries of human civilization. Mining encompasses the extraction of all natural occurring mineral substances – solid, liquid and gas – from the earth for utilitarian purposes. Open pit and underground mining plus tailings disposal ponds require geotechnical, geomechanics and geoenvironmental input through their life cycle stages.
The goal of remedial investigation and feasibility studies, environmental site remediation, and hazardous waste cleanup projects is to obtain sufficient site information to consider select practicable remedial alternatives. Contaminants may be separated into five contaminant groups as follows: Volatile organic compounds (VOCs); Semi volatile organic compounds (SVOCc); Fuels; Inorganics (metals, radioactive elements); and Explosives. A wide variety of treatment technologies is available.
For several years the public has been taking a greater interest in the effects of large scale projects involving municipal development, highways, airports, water and sewage treatment plants, pipelines, river diversions, industrial and petrochemical plants, mining and forestry facilities, landfills and spills. In many instances the public has objected to property rights. There is growing public support and enforceable legislation in developing jurisdictions for the belief that environmental assessment is an essential component of all stages of project planning, implementation, operation, and site decommissioning.
The design of a shallow foundation system normally requires that both bearing capacity and settlement be checked. Structural distress from soil settlement is often evidenced by cracking, distortion or openings. A deep foundation provides support for a structure by transferring loads either by end-bearing to a soil or rock at considerable depth below the structure, or by adhesion or friction, or both, in the soil or rock in which it is placed.
Geosynthetics may be referred to as geotextiles or filter fabrics when designed as a permeable system providing separation, filtration, drainage and/or reinforcement for the given soil and groundwater conditions.
Geosynthetics may be produced as impermeable liner systems, used as a barrier and/or liner protection for explosive gases and contaminant migration.
Earthworks includes shallow and deep excavations, and soil backfill compaction. Soil compaction is the process of forcing soil particles closer together. This is accomplished by eliminating, or at least reducing, the air voids in a given volume of soil. Soil moisture content, compactive effort, ambient temperature and grain size characteristics are important contributing factors.
Deep excavations may be sloped open cut excavations or horizontally braced excavations. In most instances, problems arise during trench excavation work due to (i) unfavourable soil and groundwater conditions, (ii) excavation procedures, (iii) foundation and bedding requirements, or (iv) backfill compaction requirements.
Groundwater is the subsurface water that occurs beneath the water table in soils, rocks and geologic formations that are fully saturated. For purposes of groundwater supply or groundwater control our traditional focus is on shallow, saturated, groundwater flow; but on a broader sense, it also encompasses the near surface, unsaturated, soil-moisture regime that plays an important role in the hydrologic cycle; and it includes the much deeper, saturated regimes that have an important influence on geologic processes.